Tusi,[n 1] also known as Headmen or Chieftains, were tribal leaders recognized as imperial officials by the Yuan, Ming, and Qing-era Chinese governments, principally in Yunnan. The arrangement is generally known as the Native Chieftain System.[n 2]
The system originated from Yuan accommodations following the conquest of Dali in AD 1253. The former ruling Duan dynasty were appointed as its governors general[n 3] and local leaders coöpted under a variety of titles as administrators of the region.[1] Some credit the Turkoman governor Shams al-Din with introducing the components of the system, but it was regularized by the Ming after their suppression of the Duan.[1]
Local leaders were obliged to provide troops, suppress local rebellions, and pay tribute in Beijing annually, biennially, or triennially according to their distance. The post was confirmed as hereditary (as opposed to the examination system in China proper), but succession, promotion, and demotion were all controlled by the Chinese administration which required each tusi to use a seal and an official charter.[2] To establish legitimate successions, tusi were ordered to list their sons and nephews in AD 1436, to redo the list in quadruplicate in 1441, and to renew the list triennially in 1441 and again in 1485. The Ming also took over regencies of children younger than 15 in 1489.[1]
Under the Ming, there were 179 tusi and 255 tuguan (native civilian commanders) in Yunnan and the destruction of a post generally only followed a severe crime.[1] The Qing greatly reduced this number. By the Yongzheng Emperor, there were only twenty-two left: Cheli, Gengma, Longchuan, Ganya (modern Yingjiang), Nandian, Menglian, Zhefang, Zhanda, Lujiang, Mangshi (Luxi), Mengmao (Ruili), Nalou, Kuirong, Shierguan, Menghua, Jingdong, Mengding, Yongning, Fuzhou, Wandian, Zhenkang, and Beishengzhou.[1]